Exercise isn’t just good for muscles—it also raises brain‑helping chemicals like IGF‑1 and BDNF, which can improve memory, focus, and mood while cutting down brain inflammation and oxidative stress, especially as we age.

By 2025, the global elderly population is estimated to reach 2.1 billion, likely leading to an increased prevalence of neuropsychiatric disorders. This brings attention to the drawbacks of pharmacological therapies, which primarily manage symptoms and often entail significant side effects. Evidence suggests that physical activity (PA) represents a non-drug strategy that can positively influence cognitive and neurological health through various molecular pathways, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, and the regulation of neurotransmitters. Aerobic exercise, resistance training, and mind-body practices have been investigated to enhance cognitive functions, including memory, executive processing, and attention, while simultaneously mitigating neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. These benefits are linked with increased hippocampal volume, synaptic plasticity, and BDNF levels. This chapter aims to discuss the neurobiological processes responsible for the effects of PA while also promoting public health strategies that support healthy cognitive aging and alleviate the burden of neuropsychiatric disorders.